Introduction

Regardless of our understanding, we are all unified by an innate ability to converse and communicate ideas. Be it through textual, verbal, non-verbal and/or audio-visual discussion, language and conversation are forever intertwined as a means to ensure social interaction. 

Linguistics takes this a step further, due to being the scientific approach to language. This was something which is briefly touched on via GCSE English Language, but done so at a very general level. Within A-Level, as someone who studied English Language and Literature, linguistics was given a much more substantial focus.

Literature vs linguistics:

Now, before we get into what linguistics covers, I need to make a clear distinction between literature and linguistics. Literature covers written work through an artistic lens, considering the writer's language techniques (e.g - alliteration, metaphor, simile) and symbolism - alongside many other elements - within analysis. Meanwhile, linguistics covers written work through a systematic lens, breaking down these language techniques to their basic fundamentals (e.g - verbs, nouns, adjectives).

Application of linguistics:

Now, you may be asking. How do we apply linguistic analysis? Well, to do so, there are a few common frameworks or 'branches' adopted by academics and linguists:

• Grammar
• Lexis
• Discourse
• Syntax
• Semantics
• Pragmatics
• Phonology
• Morphology 
  

Grammar:

These are the word types we often find ourselves relying on when analysing language, which I believe is most closely associated to literary analysis.

For a detailed breakdown of each term, I will use my Help Page developed on my grammar revision website called Got to Grammar. If interested, I will leave a link to sign up for it here.

These are the following grammatical terms you should know:

• Adjectives
• Adverbs
• Apostrophe
• Conjunctions/connectives
• Determiners
• Nouns
• Prepositions
• Sentences
• Verbs
• Voice

Adjectives

Adverbs
These provide a greater description of an adjective or verb, usually ending in '-ly', but this isn't always the case (e.g - very)

Apostrophe
These support contractions, which are a shortened form of a word/group of words; these omit certain letters/sounds (e.g - He would = He'd | I have = I've)

Conjunctions/connectives
These are words which join clauses together

Determiners
These are words which come before nouns, designed to modify their meaning:
- Definite article - the
- Indefinite article - a/an
- Demonstratives - this/that/these/those
- Pronouns & possessive determiners - my/your/his/her/its/our/their
- Quantifiers - few/little/so/much/many/a lot/some/most/any/enough
- Numbers - one/ten/thirty/etc
- Distributives - all/both/half/either/neither/each/every
- Difference words - other/another
- Pre-determiners - such/what/rather/quite

Nouns

Prepositions
These words inform where a thing/concept is, either in terms of physical space or time:
e.g - under/beneath/above/between/of/in/at/on/during/until/near/from/within

Sentences
A coherent series of words used to construct and communicate meaning.
Moods:
- Interrogative = Sentences which propose a question (e.g - "where were you last night?")
- Declarative = Sentences which deliver a statement (e.g - "the rain was terrible last week")
- Imperative = Sentences which state a command (e.g - "pick up the phone")
Exclamatives are also technically a mood, but aren't real sentences, since sentences require a verb and a noun to function (e.g - "Gosh!", "Wow!")

Types:

Verbs
A verb which depicts an action carried out by a subject (e.g - "I was reading my book")

Types:
- Dynamic = Physical actions (e.g - to run/to eat/to write)
- Stative = Non-physical actions/states of being (e.g - to be/to become/to have/to like)
- Modal auxiliary = Actions which have the potential to happen, supporting a verb (e.g - could/would/should/must/might/may/can/will/shall)
- Main auxiliary - Action verbs which support a verb (e.g - to be/to have/to do/to go)
- Progressive/continuous = Actions which suggest a continued response (these are formed using "to be" or "to go" & the present participle of a verb '-ing' suffix; e.g - to be swimming/driving/living)
- Copular = Actions supporting a noun/adjective (e.g - is/am/were/are/appear/seem/look/sound/smell/taste/feel/become | "the food tastes amazing")
- Catenative = Main verbs which are followed by another, forming a chain-like structure (e.g - "I like swimming", "I want to eat")
- Irregular = Verbs which don't follow the standard conventions, as they don't add the '-ed' suffix for their past forms (e.g - be = been/do = done/go = gone/have = had)

Tenses:

Voice
An auditory reference describing the relationship between a subject and object
Types:

Lexis:

This term refers to the words that comprise a language. In other words, its entire vocabulary. Words which meaning depends on the context that they're used are referred to as deixis. For example, in The Great Gatsby, when Tom Buchanan states "My God, I believe the man's coming", the concrete noun "man" is a deictic reference to Jay Gatsby. Out of context, these words could refer to anyone.

We will discuss words within context more in pragmatics.

A word closely associated with lexis is diction, which refers to how those words are used effectively and clearly. Another relevant term is register, which refers to language used depending on the situation.

There are 2 key register types:
- Formal = letter/academic writing/speech
- Informal = conversations/messaging (invites colloquial language)

Something which you may have learned about in GCSE English is something called a semantic field. This refers to a group of words united by a common theme/concept (e.g - apple/banana/orange all derive from the semantic field of fruit).

Regardless of what I teach you today, none of it would be possible without codification. In the context of linguistics, this refers to standardising a language through establishing set rules and conventions, done so via dictionaries and thesauruses)

Discourse:

This term has a lot of debated definitions, ironic since it often refers to the discussion between widely agreed ideas.

For linguistics, discourse refers to the use of language within communication and social contexts.

This too is closely linked with pragmatics.

To start off, these are the general discourse terms you should know:

• Genre convention = Recurring elements which define a genre/form (e.g - happy endings in fairy tales, criminals vs police in crime dramas)
• Mode = The medium/media form in which language is explored (e.g - spoken/written → newspaper, TV script, book, etc)
• Linearity = The linear/structure of a text (typically, texts are written chronologically)
• Narrative = A spoken/written account of connected events
• Context = Where/when/how a text is produced/received
• Cohesion = The way links/connections unite elements of a discourse/text
• Coherence = The way discourse/textual elements combine to ensure semantic/meaningful sense
• Corpus = A collection of written texts
  

Types of conversations:

Within conversations, we can classify peer discussion as falling into 2 categories:

The exchange structure:

A framework we can use to analyse conversations is the common occurrence of the exchange structure. This is where certain interactions adhere to key exchange patterns, which act as a single unit of communication. An expected discourse pattern would be the Initiation → Response → Feedback structure; e.g - a teacher asks a question, the student responds and the teacher gives feedback. The back-and-forth dynamic does reflect turn-taking, a unit of conversation where each participant takes a turn in contributing.

Conversations arguably take us on a journey. The linguistic methods we use to change a conversation's subject, known as topic shifts. If a conversation remained in one static area, speakers and/or listeners would quickly lose interest. We transition to different ideas via discourse markers (e.g - "Moving on", "Next"), which serve as verbal signposting that the discussion is changing.

Now, this isn't perfect, as we can cause false starts - where we restart a conversation after hitting a dead end | "Let's move on" - or self-corrections - words which reiterate a formerly established idea | "Actually", "On the other hand". We as humans have and will always learn through trial and error. Language is no different. 

Otherwise, the distinction between awkward and confident people wouldn't exist.

Linguistic conditioning:

We are conditioned to process words, taught how to respond and learn through positive reinforcement (e.g - adult praise) what exactly is contextually appropriate. We embrace backchanneling (responding to someone to show you're listening; e.g - "Yes", "Uh-huh", "Right", "Oh", "Really", *nod*). We learn how to be polite and choose the correct words. We learn how to weaponise fillers - words which fill gaps in our expressions (e.g - "like", "actually", "you know", "uh", "erm"). We learn how to avoid taboo language, such as swearing/expletives, slurs and blasphemy.

Giles' Language Convergence Theory:

A key concept which discusses language adaptation is Howard Giles' Language Convergence Theory. This implies that speakers adapt their language in 2 ways:

- Language convergence = A speaker conforming to a receiver's language (done so via accent/dialect/sociolect)
- Language divergence = A speaker resisting a receiver's language (done so via accent/dialect/sociolect)

Neologisms:

Once we subconsciously become self-assured with our lexis, we may become ambitious enough to develop neologisms (new words not associated with Standard English). This pseudo-speech isn't officially a part of a language's lexis but people use it - the best example I can think of in recent memory is "lowkirkenuinely", which typing it now shows up with a red squiggly line to highlight its grammatical invalidity.

But with enough discourse supporting it, words can become affiliated with dictionaries and thesauruses. Take the inclusion of "ragebait" as Oxford's 2025 Word of the Year, a word which originally began as meme slang, until it became a deeply resonant term for individuals to express deliberate frustration. It also reflects how we as a society now want to minimise word redundancies and be more clearer in our expression. 

Patterns emerge in speech via framing moves, which is where our lexical choices highlight key parts of a discourse/text. For example, imagine we were having a phone call. I may use the phrase "It's been lovely speaking to you". In doing so, I frame the conversation's conclusion through more explicit diction. This means if our call was transcribed onto print, it could clearly inform a reader skimming a text that this is where our conversation ends.

Direct and indirect communication:

Language can be so direct that it causes simultaneous discussion. We call this overlapping speech. We see this more clearly in spoken discussion. Think of when you watch a debate and one of the speakers is losing the argument; in a moment of frustration, they will cut over the opposition in an attempt to reclaim back some semblance of control within the room and persuade the people. 

However, language isn't always direct and can be long-term. We refer to this as asynchronous discourse, which is the delay between utterance and response (e.g - a person responding to an old social media post).

Critical Theory approach to linguistics:

Language can also reflect critical theory through the reflection of power dynamics.

Goffman's Footing Theory:

A key theoretical example of this would be Erving Goffman's Footing Theory, which in summary suggests speakers within a conversation have different/equal positions of power; this is decided according to different contextual factors (e.g - relationships between speakers/occupation/knowledge/purpose of conversation).

There are 4 types of footing:
- Equal = Speakers share similar status (perhaps close/friendly/romantic relationship)
- Unequal = 1 speaker has more control and power than the other
- Close = Informal/chatty/colloquial conversation (may suggest an equal footing)
- Distant = Formal conversation (tendency to use Standard English; may indicate an unequal footing)

Language prestige:

I will address 2 important terms employed within linguistics relating to Goffman's ideas.

That is covert prestige and overt prestige.

Covert prestige is challenging standardised language norms, with speakers gaining social status through unconventional lexical forms or dialects (e.g - using "ain't" instead of "isn't", "innit" instead of "isn't it"). Overt prestige is conforming to standardised language norms (this is largely done so through education and the media, with this reflecting how knowledgeable we are, alongside what class and extent of power we have). We use this dialect within job interviews, documentation or essay writing.

Syntax:

This refers to using the conventions of how words are specifically arranged to construct meaning.

Think of how we arrange a sentence. We need a subject/noun and a verb for it to be grammatically correct. Otherwise, it's irregular. However, we can drastically alter the intended meaning of said sentence depending on the structure. For example, "The owner ran to the cat" and "the cat ran to the owner" have 2 vastly different interpretations, despite both using the same set of words.

For more information, check out the sentence section within the Grammar topic. 

Semantics:

This refers to the study of meanings. Whenever dealing with textual analysis, we always utilise a semantic framework.

There are 2 key types of implied meaning:

- Denotation = The explicit, surface-level meaning (e.g - the girl smiled = the girl smiled)
- Connotation = The implicit, below-the-surface meaning (e.g - the girl smiled = the girl is/pretending to be happy)

Moreover, semantics also covers words which have different or similar meanings:

- Synonyms = Words with the same/similar meaning (e.g - good, kind, noble)
- Antonyms = Words with the opposite meaning (e.g - good vs evil, big vs small, quiet vs loud) 
- Metonyms = Words defining a subject's attribute/property (e.g - "the word from Number 10 is" - the Prime Minister's address is used as a metonym for the government)

Another key term within this branch is collocation. A term also relevant to corpus linguistics - something which I've written about for LGSM here - it depicts 2 or more words which normally fit together as a set phrase (e.g - "fish and chips", "rock and roll", "pay attention").

Additionally, we should also consider homophones and homographs. Homophones are words which sound the same but are spelt different or have different meanings (e.g - blue/blew, to/two/too). Whereas, homographs are words which are spelt the same but are pronounced/meant different (e.g - 'bark' of a dog vs 'bark' of a tree, river 'bank' vs money 'bank').

Let's take this one step further: hypernyms vs hyponyms. Hypernyms label a large, general category (e.g - "animal" is a hypernym for the words "dog/cat/rabbit"); hyponyms are words which fit into said category (e.g - "dog/cat/rabbit" are hyponyms for the category "animal").

Semantic change:

This refers to the process of a word's meaning changing over time, with some of the following types being:

• Amelioration = A word's meaning becoming more positive over time (e.g - "cool" simply referred to a temperature but now is a positive adjective for something trendy/admirable)
• Pejoration = A word's meaning becoming more negative over time (e.g - "villain" used to refer to someone of lower class and living in the country, being a synonym for "villager"; now, it means someone who carries out cruel, evil actions)
• Broadening/expansion = A word's original meaning expanding to encompass more ideas (e.g - "holiday" derives from "holy day", a time where people stopped working to observe religious practices; now, it has broadened to refer to any break from work or other occupations)
• Narrowing/specialisation = A word's original meaning shrinking to encompass less ideas (e.g - "deer" is derived from Old English, meaning "small creatures". Now, it refers to a specific type of creature)
• Bleaching/weakening =  A word's original meaning becoming less influential over time (e.g - the emotive power of "dead" has been weakened by becoming an intensifier; "dead tired", "dead boring")
  
  

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Pragmatics:

This refers to the study of meanings within context.

As you can see, this has close connections to other linguistic branches. Especially semantics and lexis. However, unlike semantics, which considers meanings through their static and fixed form, pragmatics considers the external information associated with a word's use.

Why did a person state that we need to take action. What is taking place to warrant this language? What is the connotation I can infer from the context of the situation?

These are questions a pragmatician would consider through deictic analysis.

To avoid repeating myself, I would recommend you consider taking another look over lexis, semantics and discourse, whilst briefly touching on syntax. 

A key term I will discuss is implicatures, which essentially means 'what is connoted by a speaker's language use'. This can be written and/or spoken usage, but the goal of pragmatics is to uncover these hidden meanings. 

It often intersects with the subfield sociolinguistics, something which I may cover here or over on Liverpool Guild Student Media. They also intersect with critical linguistic theory, something I discuss in the Discourse section.

Phonology:

This refers to the study of sound within language.

Another closely related term is phonetics, which is the way in which these sounds are produced by speakers. For this, one would consider pitch/volume/pace/rhythm as aspects which amplify linguistic devices. This usage is known as prosody. 

Now, I must admit. We never covered phonology in much detail during A-Level English, so I wouldn't proclaim to be an expert on it. Partly because written work doesn't lend itself much to phonetic analysis without a verbal reference. It is also because I imagine many people pick English to get into the more creative rather than scientific aspects.

However, we did have a lesson on sounds, so these will serve as the basis for my information.

Phonetic terminology:

A key term we should be aware of is plosives; these are sounds generally linked to letters 'p/t/k/b/d/g' within English; e.g - pat, kid, bag. These sounds are produced by a complete obstruction of the airflow at some position in the mouth (e.g - lips coming together). Air from the lungs is compressed behind this temporary obstruction and air pressure builds up towards the mouth. 

Another is fricatives. These are sounds typically affiliated with letters 'f/s/v/z' within English; e.g - free, spear, violin, zoo. They're caused by the air passing through a narrow constriction causing turbulent air flow and the creation of a noisy sound.

Next, there is palatals. A palatal consonant is pronounced with the body of the tongue against the hard palate, hence the name. This sound is associated with the letter 'y'; e.g - yes, yet, yours. 

After, we must consider affricates. This is a phoneme (basic sound unit) which combines a plosive, followed immediately by a fricative or spirant which shares the same place of articulation (the position within the mouth that a consonant sound is produced); e.g - 'ch' for 'chair' and 'j' for jar'.

Finally, there is spirants. These are sounds which create a hissing noise, done so via 's' or 'sh'; e.g - snake, sizzle, shush.

A bonus term you may want to know is diphthong, which is where a vowel sound combines to make 2 distinct sounds. In doing so, the speaker moves from 1 sound to another (e.g - "light" transitioning from "la" to "li", "crowd" transitioning from "cra" to "crou", "rain" from "ruh" to "ray").

Morphology:

This refers to the study of how words are formed and structured to develop grammar rules; this is similar to syntax but takes a deeper focus on word structure and considers terms such as word roots, prefixes and suffixes. 

A keyword is derivation. This term has multiple meanings. For historical linguistics, it is referring to a word's origin, or etymology. However, for this article, it means the formation of new words using prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes go before a word root (e.g - antihero = a morally grey individual who ultimately wants to do the right thing), while suffixes go after a word root (e.g - criminology = the study of criminality). A term closely linked to this is compounding, which is where you merge established words to make a new one (e.g - bedroom, sunflower)

Another keyword is inflections. These modify original words, depending on several factors (e.g - tense/person/number/gender/tone/voice/etc). This could reflect linguistic pluralism (e.g - man → men), possession (e.g - man → man's | Atlas = Atlas' or Atlas's; this suffix possession is up to constant debate. I personally use Atlas'), tense (e.g - I ran → I run → I will run) and comparisons (e.g - big → bigger → biggest).

Conclusion

And that, is essentially the key areas of linguistics. I recognise that is a lot of information, but it is very hard to summarise such intricate branches. Hopefully, this should serve as an extensive guide to linguistics and be a jumping off point for additional research of your own.

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